Rust for C++ programmers - part 9: destructuring pt2 - match and borrowing

(Continuing from part 8, destructuring).

(Note this was significantly edited as I was wildly wrong the first time around. Thanks to /u/dpx-infinity for pointing out my mistakes.)

When destructuring there are some surprises in store where borrowing is concerned. Hopefully, nothing surprising once you understand borrowed references really well, but worth discussing (it took me a while to figure out, that's for sure. Longer than I realised, in fact, since I screwed up the first version of this blog post).

Imagine you have some `&Enum` variable `x` (where `Enum` is some enum type). You have two choices: you can match `*x` and list all the variants (`Variant1 => ...`, etc.) or you can match `x` and list reference to variant patterns (`&Variant1 => ...`, etc.). (As a matter of style, prefer the first form where possible since there is less syntactic noise). `x` is a borrowed reference and there are strict rules for how a borrowed reference can be dereferenced, these interact with match expressions in surprising ways (at least surprising to me), especially when you a modifying an existing enum in a seemingly innocuous way and then the compiler explodes on a match somewhere.

Before we get into the details of the match expression, lets recap Rust's rules for value passing. In C++, when assigning a value into a variable or passing it to a function there are two choices - pass-by-value and pass-by-reference. The former is the default case and means a value is copied either using a copy constructor or a bitwise copy. If you annotate the destination of the parameter pass or assignment with `&`, then the value is passed by reference - only a pointer to the value is copied and when you operate on the new variable, you are also operating on the old value.

Rust has the pass-by-reference option, although in Rust the source as well as the destination must be annotated with `&`. For pass-by-value in Rust, there are two further choices - copy or move. A copy is the same as C++'s semantics (except that there are no copy constructors in Rust). A move copies the value but destroys the old value - Rust's type system ensures you can no longer access the old value. As examples, `int` has copy semantics and `Box<int>` has move semantics:

fn foo() {
    let x = 7i;
    let y = x;                // x is copied
    println!("x is {}", x);   // OK

    let x = box 7i;
    let y = x;                // x is moved
    //println!("x is {}", x); // error: use of moved value: `x`
}

Rust determines if an object has move or copy semantics by looking for destructors. Destructors probably need a post of their own, but for now, an object in Rust has a destructor if it implements the `Drop` trait. Just like C++, the destructor is executed just before an object is destroyed. If an object has a destructor then it has move semantics. If it does not, then all of its fields are examined and if any of those do then the whole object has move semantics. And so on down the object structure. If no destructors are found anywhere in an object, then it has copy semantics.

Now, it is important that a borrowed object is not moved, otherwise you would have a reference to the old object which is no longer valid. This is equivalent to holding a reference to an object which has been destroyed after going out of scope - it is a kind of dangling pointer. If you have a pointer to an object, there could be other references to it. So if an object has move semantics and you have a pointer to it, it is unsafe to dereference that pointer. (If the object has copy semantics, dereferencing creates a copy and the old object will still exist, so other references will be fine).

OK, back to match expressions. As I said earlier, if you want to match some `x` with type `&T` you can dereference once in the match clause or match the reference in every arm of the match expression. Example:

enum Enum1 {
    Var1,
    Var2,
    Var3
}

fn foo(x: &Enum1) {
    match *x {  // Option 1: deref here.
        Var1 => {}
        Var2 => {}
        Var3 => {}
    }

    match x {
        // Option 2: 'deref' in every arm.
        &Var1 => {}
        &Var2 => {}
        &Var3 => {}
    }
}

In this case you can take either approach because `Enum1` has copy semantics. Let's take a closer look at each approach: in the first approach we dereference `x` to a temporary variable with type `Enum1` (which copies the value in `x`) and then do a match against the three variants of `Enum1`. This is a 'one level' match because we don't go deep into the value's type. In the second approach there is no dereferencing. We match a value with type `&Enum1` against a reference to each variant. This match goes two levels deep - it matches the type (always a reference) and looks inside the type to match the referred type (which is `Enum1`).

Either way, we must ensure that we (that is, the compiler) must ensure we respect Rust's invariants around moves and references - we must not move any part of an object if it is referenced. If the value being matched has copy semantics, that is trivial. If it has move semantics then we must make sure that moves don't happen in any match arm. This is accomplished either by ignoring data which would move, or making references to it (so we get by-reference passing rather than by-move).

enum Enum2 {
    // Box has a destructor so Enum2 has move semantics.
    Var1(Box<int>),
    Var2,
    Var3
}

fn foo(x: &Enum2) {
    match *x {
        // We're ignoring nested data, so this is OK
        Var1(..) => {}
        // No change to the other arms.
        Var2 => {}
        Var3 => {}
    }

    match x {
        // We're ignoring nested data, so this is OK
        &Var1(..) => {}
        // No change to the other arms.
        &Var2 => {}
        &Var3 => {}
    }
}

In either approach we don't refer to any of the nested data, so none of it is moved. In the first approach, even though `x` is referenced, we don't touch its innards in the scope of the dereference (i.e., the match expression) so nothing can escape. We also don't bind the whole value (i.e., bind `*x` to a variable), so we can't move the whole object either.

We can take a reference to any variant in the second match, but not in the derferenced version. So, in the second approach replacing the second arm with `a @ &Var2 => {}` is OK (`a` is a reference), but under the first approach we couldn't write `a @ Var2 => {}` since that would mean moving `*x` into `a`. We could write `ref a @ Var2 => {}` (in which `a` is also a reference), although it's not a construct you see very often.

But what about if we want to use the data nested inside `Var1`? We can't write:

    match *x {
        Var1(y) => {}
        _ => {}
    }

or

    match x {
        &Var1(y) => {}
        _ => {}
    }

because in both cases it means moving part of `x` into `y`. We can use the 'ref' keyword to get a reference to the data in `Var1`: `&Var1(ref y) => {}`.That is OK, because now we are not dereferencing anywhere and thus not moving any part of `x`. Instead we are creating a pointer which points into the interior of `x`.

Alternatively, we could destructure the Box (this match is going three levels deep): `&Var1(box y) => {}`. This is OK because `int` has copy semantics and `y` is a copy of the `int` inside the `Box` inside `Var1` (which is 'inside' a borrowed reference). Since `int` has copy semantics, we don't need to move any part of `x`. We could also create a reference to the int rather than copy it: `&Var1(box ref y) => {}`. Again, this is OK, because we don't do any dereferencing and thus don't need to move any part of `x`. If the contents of the Box had move semantics, then we could not write `&Var1(box y) => {}`, we would be forced to use the reference version. We could also use similar techniques with the first approach to matching, which look the same but without the first `&`. For example, `Var1(box ref y) => {}`.

Now lets get more complex. Lets say you want to match against a pair of reference-to-enum values. Now we can't use the first approach at all:

fn bar(x: &Enum2, y: &Enum2) {
    // Error: x and y are being moved.
    // match (*x, *y) {
    //     (Var2, _) => {}
    //     _ => {}
    // }

    // OK.
    match (x, y) {
        (&Var2, _) => {}
        _ => {}
    }
}

The first approach is illegal because the value being matched is created by dereferencing `x` and `y` and then moving them both into a new tuple object. So in this circumstance, only the second approach works. And of course, you still have to follow the rules above for avoiding moving parts of `x` and `y`.

If you do end up only being able to get a reference to some data and you need the value itself, you have no option except to copy that data. Usually that means using `clone()`. If the data doesn't implement clone, you're going to have to further destructure to make a manual copy or implement clone yourself.

What if we don't have a reference to a value with move semantics, but the value itself. Now moves are OK, because we know no one else has a reference to the value (the compiler ensures that if they do, we can't use the value). For example,

fn baz(x: Enum2) {
    match x {
        Var1(y) => {}
        _ => {}
    }
}

There are still a few things to be aware of. Firstly, you can only move to one place. In the above example we are moving part of `x` into `y` and we'll forget about the rest. If we wrote `a @ Var1(y) => {}` we would be attempting to move all of `x` into `a` and part of `x` into `y`. That is not allowed, an arm like that is illegal. Making one of `a` or `y` a reference (using `ref a`, etc.) is not an option either, then we'd have the problem described above where we move whilst holding a reference. We can make both `a` and `y` references and then we're OK - neither is moving, so `x` remains in tact and we have pointers to the whole and a part of it.

Similarly (and more common), if we have a variant with multiple pieces of nested data, we can't take a reference to one datum and move another. For example if we had a `Var4` declared as `Var4(Box<int>, Box<int>)` we can have a match arm which references both (`Var4(ref y, ref z) => {}`) or a match arm which moves both (`Var4(y, z) => {}`) but you cannot have a match arm which moves one and references the other (`Var4(ref y, z) => {}`). This is because a partial move still destroys the whole object, so the reference would be invalid.